The Art and Craft of Pedagogy: Portraits Of Effective Teachers (Continuum Studies in Educational Research)

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The distinction between teachers and pedagogues, instruction and guidance, and education for school or life was a feature of discussions around education for many centuries. It was still around when Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) explored education. In On Pedagogy ( Über Pädagogik) first published in 1803, he talked as follows: Moore, Alex. Teaching and Learning: Pedagogy, Curriculum and Culture. London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0750710004

Before Herbart, it was unusual to combine the concepts of ‘education’ and ‘teaching’. Consequently, questions pertaining to education and teaching were initially pursued independently… Herbart… took the bold step of ‘subordinating’ the concept of ‘teaching’ to that of ‘education’ in his educational theory. As he saw it, external influences, such as the punishment or shaming of pupils, were not the most important instruments of education. On the contrary, appropriate teaching was the only sure means of promoting education that was bound to prove successful.

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Education and training can only contribute to growth and job-creation if learning is focused on the knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired by students (learning outcomes) through the learning process, rather than on completing a specific stage or on time spent in school." (European Commission, 2012, p.7) [53] Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence [44] by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students. [45] [46] [47] Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. [48] Academic degrees [ edit ] For many of those concerned with social pedagogy, it is place where care and education meet – one is not somehow less than the other (Cameron and Moss 2011). For example, in Denmark ‘care’ can be seen as one of the four central areas that describe the pedagogical tasks: Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning. It values developmentally appropriate teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student. Understanding Differentiated Instruction: Building a Foundation for Leadership". Ascd.org . Retrieved 8 June 2018.

Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late twentieth century, replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding the learning process. Cognitive theory is not a refutation of behaviorism, but rather an expansion that uses changes in behavior as indicators for processes within a learner's mind. The concept of cognitive theory utilizes the concept of "schema," a structure of internal knowledge, as well as the concept of short and long term memory. Cognitive theory suggests that meaningful information is easier to retain, and new information is affected by context, environment, and previous schemata. In Scandinavia, a pedagogue ( pædagog) is broadly speaking a practitioner of pedagogy, but the term is primarily reserved for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education (such as kindergartens and nurseries). A pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, within this restrictive definition, e.g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages, and human resource management. When working with at-risk families or youths they are referred to as social pedagogues ( socialpædagog). Within ancient Greek society, there was a strong distinction between the activities of pedagogues ( paidagö gus) and subject teachers ( didáskalos). The first pedagogues were slaves – often foreigners and the ‘spoils of war’ (Young 1987). They were trusted and sometimes learned members of rich households who accompanied the sons of their ‘masters’ in the street, oversaw their meals etc., and sat beside them when being schooled. These pedagogues were generally seen as representatives of their wards’ fathers and literally ‘tenders’ of children (pais plus agögos, a ‘child-tender’). Children were often put in their charge at around 7 years and remained with them until late adolescence. The roles and relationships of pedagogues

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Pedersen, S., & Liu, M. (2003). Teachers' beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(2), 57–76. In the United States, John Dewey significantly influenced pedagogical approaches with his concept of progressive education. Dewey believed that students needed to integrate skills and knowledge into their lives through experience, rather than just be taught dead facts. He also coined the phrase "learning by doing," a phrase that has become the hallmark of experiential learning. For instance, Dewey's students learned biology, chemistry, and physics though activities such as cooking breakfast.

In recent years our understanding of what is involved in ‘caring’ has been greatly enhanced by the work of Nel Noddings. She distinguishes between caring-for and caring-about. Caring-for involves face-to-face encounters in which one person attends directly to the needs of another. We learn first what it means to be cared-for. ‘Then, gradually, we learn both to care for and, by extension, to care about others’ (Noddings 2002: 22). Such caring-about, Noddings suggests, can be seen as providing the foundation for our sense of justice. The growing interest in social pedagogy and specialist pedagogues in some countries, when put alongside developments in thinking about the nature of learning –means that we are at one of those moments where there might be movement around how the term is used in English-language contexts. Here I just want to highlight three areas of debate: According to the constructivist approach, learners construct and interpret their individual realities based on their perceptions of experiences. Learning is regarded as a process in which the learner actively constructs new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge and beliefs. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. The teacher acts as a facilitator, encouraging students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Working with other students enables the sharing of viewpoints and an emphasis on collaborative learning. [6] Constructivist theories are behind many modern teaching styles, such as Generative Learning, Inquiry-based instruction, Discovery Learning, and knowledge building, promoting the student's free exploration within a given framework or structure. The pedagogue was responsible for every aspect of the child’s upbringing from correcting grammar and diction to controlling his or her sexual morals. Reciting a pedagogue’s advice, Seneca said, “Walk thus and so; eat thus and so, this is the proper conduct for a man and that for a woman; this for a married man and that for a bachelor’. (Smith 2006: 201) Adapting the teaching resource should suit appropriate teaching and learning environments, national and local cultural norms, and make it accessible to different types of learners. Key adaptations in teaching resource include: [41]Kincheloe, Joe L.; Horn, Raymond A., eds. (2007). The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology. Praeger. p.552. ISBN 978-0313331237.